Biochip

Biochip

The future device will be used 5th generation computer made of large or gain molecules and genetically engineered proteins is called Biochip.

Artificial Intelligence (AI)

Artificial Intelligence (AI)A Branch of computer science that refers to the use of computer in such away that they are able reason and draw recognize voice and have language processing ability is called Artificial Intelligence (AI).

Microprocessor

Microprocessor

The microprocessor is a computer processor built onto a single piece of silicon, known as a wafer or chip.
First microprocessor is Intel 4004 developed by American Intel Corporation 1n 1971.
Used in forth generation computer as a major components.

Integrated circuits(IC)

Integrated circuits(IC) Integrated circuits were made possible by experimental discoveries which showed that semiconductor devices could perform the functions of vacuum tubes, and by mid-20th-century technology advancements in semiconductor device fabrication. The integration of large numbers of tiny transistors into a small chip was an enormous improvement over the manual assembly of circuits using electronic components. The integrated circuit's mass production capability, reliability, and building-block approach to circuit design ensured the rapid adoption of standardized ICs in place of designs using discrete transistors.
Use in Third generation of computer major components.

Transistor

Transistor Transistor
Short for: transfer resistor
Transistor is a solid semi conductor device which can be used for amplification, switching, voltage stabilization single modulation etc.
Transistor transfer a single from a few resistance to high resistance.
Transistor was invited in 1974 by three Bell Lab John Bardeen, Walter Brattain, and William Shockley.
Used in second generation computers as major components.

Vacuum Tubes

Vacuum Tubes

The vacuum tubes was invented by Lee De Forest in 1907.
Lee De Forest was born o\in Council Bluffs, Lowa (USA) In August 26, 1873.
Vacuum Tubes is a set of metal electronic and grids contained in a glass metal tube.
The Vacuum tubes was used in first generation of the computers.
Formerly used for amplification and switching an electronic circuits, now used CRT(Cathode Ray Tube)

Fifth Generation Computer (Present-Beyond)

Fifth Generation Computer (Present-Beyond)
Major components –ULSI(Ultra Large Scale Integration)
The concept of AI(American Intelligence ) has been introduce to take its own decision .
Bio Chips and Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) are use has memory device .
Extremely high-speed processing capability.
Larges uses of natural language processing and user friendly.
Few 5th generation of computer project – ICOT program in Japan, MCC project In the USA etc.

Fourth Generation Computer (1971-Present)

Fourth Generation Computer (1971-Present)
Major components – Microprocessor
The size was greatly reduce
The operating speed increased beyond picoseconds.
Many sophisticated programs for special application were available.
Magnetic and optical storage device with capacity more then 500GB were used as secondary memory.
Few 4th generation computers- Pentium I/II/III/IV/V, APPLE II etc.

Third Generation Computer(1964-1971)

Third Generation Computer(1964-1971)
Major components – IC(Integrated Circuit)
Smaller, efficient and more reliable then second generation computer.
The operating speed was measured in terms of micro second.
Magnetic disk were used a secondary memory.
They has input and output device such as keyboard and monitors.
Few 3rd generation computers- IBM 360 Series etc.

Second Generation Computer (1956-1963)

Second Generation Computer (1956-1963)
Major components – Transistor
Smaller and faster then first generation computers.
The operating speed was measured in terms of microsecond.
Magnetic tapes were used as secondary storage media.
They could understand high level language such as COBOL.
Few 2nd generation computers’- LEO Mark III, ATLAC, JCL 1901 etc.

First Generation Computer(1945-1956)

Major components –Vacuum Tubes
Very slow, large in size, consumed a lot of electronic power
The operating speed was measured in terms of millisecond.
Storage capacity was too small only 1 to 4 Kb
They used machine level programming language.
Few 1st Generation computers-Mark-1 ENIAC, EDVAC, EDSAC, UNIVAC etc.

Computer generation

The evolution of modern digital computer took place in five distinct phases known as computer generations, which are classified on the basic of their speed, capacity, reliability components used etc.

First Generation Computer(1945-1956)
Second Generation Computer (1956-1963)
Third Generation Computer(1964-1971)
Fourth Generation Computer (1971-Present)
Fifth Generation Computer (Present-Beyond)

UNIVAC Universal Automatic Computer)

UNIVAC Universal Automatic Computer) Design by Universal Accounting Company & set um by john Mauchly and J.P.Eckert in 1951.
Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer consist of magnetic tape for data input and output .
Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer was the first general – purpose electronic digital computer designed for commercial use.

EDVAC( Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer)

EDVAC( Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer)Design by J.Mauchly and J.P Eckert at Pennsylvania University and was completed in 1950.
Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer include a stored – program a central process and memory for both data and program.

EDSAC(Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator

EDSAC(Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator

Design by Maurice Wilkes at Cambridge University, mathematical laboratory in 1947.
Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator was the first operational stored-program computer.
Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator contains 3000 vacuum tubes and operated kilowatt.
Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator used a mercury delay line storage system.

ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator )

ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator ) Design by Dr. John Mauchly and Dr.J.P.Eckert completed in 1946.
Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator was built from 18000 vacuum tube ands 70000 resistors.
Power consumed – 5000000 Kilowatt and floor space – 18oo square feet .
Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator could add two numbers in 200 microseconds and multiplication of two numbers in 2800 microsecond.

Electronic Computer

Electronic Computer are as followes.

ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator )

EDSAC(Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator )

EDVAC( Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer)

UNIVAC Universal Automatic Computer)

more information for open this heading.

ABC(Atanasoff- Breey Computer )

ABC(Atanasoff- Breey Computer )First Electromechanically computer.
Built in 1973-1942 at Lowa State University by John V.Atanasoff and Clifford Berry.
Atanasoff- Breey Computer introduced the idea of binary arithmetic and logic circuit.
Atanasoff- Breey Computer used punch cards as secondary storage.

Mark-I

• Designed by Howard Aiken (1900-1973), a Harvard Engineer in 1937.
• Mark-I was the first automatic electromechanical computer.
• Mark-I was 51 ft. long, 8 ft. tall and 3 ft. wide having 18000 vaccum tubes.
• Mark-I used instructions stored in paper tapes and panched cards. Mark-I consits of 7 lakhs 50 thousands parts.

Jon Von Neumann

• Jon Von Neumann was the doctorate in mathematics from the University of Budapest on set theory.


• Jon Von Neumann designed the EDVAC with team of J.P Eckert and J.W. Mauchly.


• Jon Von Neumann introduced the concept of having a stored programe in memory in 1945.


• This concept led to the beginning of the first generation of the computers.

Lady Augusta Add Lovelace(1816-1852)

• An English Mathematician (daughter of English Poet Lord Byron) carried forward yhr work ofCharles Babbage.
• She developed programes for performing mathematical calculation on the Analytical Engine.She was first computer programmer.
• One programming language 'Ada' was named after her.

Charles Babbage(1792-1871)

• A professor of mathematics developed a machine called Difference Engine in 1822.
• In 1833, Charles Babbage developed the Analytical Engine.
• Charles Babbage is known as the Father of the morden computer as his invention Analytical Engine hadthe work for more of the characteristics of morden computers.

Hollerith Tabulator

• Developed by ana American Dr. Hermam Hollerith(1869-1926) in 1887.
• Hollerith Tabulator Used punched cards for input, output and instructions.
• This machine was used by American Department of Census.
• In 1886, he founded the tabulating machine company which was renamed as IBM(International Business Machine) later.

Analytical Engine

• Developed by Charles Babbage in 1833.
• Analytical Engine had store for storing data and introduction result.
• Analytical Engine had an output device to produce printed result.
• Analytical Engine had a unit for calculation 'mill'.
• All the morden computers are based on analytical engine(input-process-output).

Difference Engine

• Design by Charles Babbage(1792-1871) an English mathmatematician, in 1822.
• Difference Engine could slove equations.
• This project could not be completed due to lack of funds.
• Difference Engine is housed in the Science Museum, London and all is till in perfect working order.

Stepped Reckoner

• Developed by Gottfried Wilhelm Von Leibniz(1646-1716), a German Mathematican &philosopher in 1694.
• Stepped Reckoner could evaluate square roots by series of stepped addition.
• The centerpiece of this machine was its stepped-drum gear design.
• Could perform all four of the basic arithmetic functions-addition, subtraction, multiplicatioand division.

Pascaline

• Developed by Blaise Pascale(1623-1662) in 1642 to help his father's tax work.
• It contain eight dials, gears and wheels.
• It was capable of performing additions and subtractons up to 8 digits.
• It could add and subtract by the movement of wheels, not used for devision and multiplication.

Slide Rule

• Invented by William Oughtred(1574-1660), an English Mathematician in 1620.


• An analog device used the principle of logaritms.


• Could perform simple multiplication and divison problems.


• Consist of 2 grdduated scales, devised in such a way that suitable alignment of one againt othermakes it possible to obtain products, quotients etc

Napier's Bones

• Created by John Napier(1550-1617), a Scottish mathematician and scientist.
• The first multiplication mechanical aid to calculations.
• There are 9 different “bones” are used.

Abcaus

• Created by Chinese about 30000 years ago.
• The first meachanical aid to calculations.
• Calculations are performed by manipulating thebeads.
• It is a rectangular box. Divided into two parts by mid bar.
• upper part is called heaven consist oftwo.
  
  

History and Evolution of computer

• Abcaus
• Napier's Bones
• Slide Rule
• Pascaline
• Stepped Reckoner
• Difference Engine
• Analytical Engine
• Hollerith Tabulator
• Charles Babbage
• Lady Augusta Add Lovelace(1816-1852)
• Jon Von Neumann

Advantage of computer

• Computer is a reable machine and performs the task with 100% accurancy rate.
• Copmaring with human being its must faster.
• Computer is versatile as it can di many types of jobs once at a time.
• lower total cost of ownership.
• Computer can be veru useful while doing repeated tasks.
• Reduced dependance on software vendors.
• Computer are tools like spelling and grammar check.
• Do not see a significent advantage.
• Back- up copies of works can be made easily, without having to-write every thing.
• High level of security.
• Computer contain many programe that allow you tom present a pice work in a professional manner.
• On the move.
• Computer provide us Entertainment
  

Disadvantage of computer

• Computer is expensive and still not affordable.
• Repair and maintenance is required ferquently.
• Very difficult to maintain the privacy.
• porn stuff.
• People are becoming too much dependent on computers.
• Computer can be hancked hence important information is no longer as safe computer useb to be.
• Skilled user is required to work with the computer.
• Sopil eye sight if look on the moniter.
• Computer cannot be used on the dursty and the rough envourmment.
• computer really on electricity such as limit their reliability.
• Illegal work can ruin business.

Capabilities and capability-based security

Capabilities and capability-based security performs compution at enourmous speed wirh 100% accuracy rate.It perform provides job repeatedly without dart and tired.It provides us information while can used in future for different purpose. the only exception is "at most one special type of capability system ",in which the manipulation of capabilites must be done by be believe hardware. A capability is defined to a protected object reference which, by virture of its possession by a user process. Capability-based security is a concept in the design of secure computing systems. A capability (known in some systems as a key) is a communicable, unforgivable token of authority. A user program on a capability-based operating system must use a capability to access an object. Capabilities are typically stored by the operating system in a list, with some mechanism in place to prevent the program from directly modifying the contents of the capability (so as to forge access rights or change the object it points to).At last , when a capability propagates between compartments, security policy and identities must be checked.

Limitation of computer

Although computer are very useful device and appilied and varius fields but there are limitation of computer.

• Computer does not have its own intelligency.
• computer is dull machine.
• computer can not memorize and recall an needed by it.
• Instructions are needed to perform any task

Characteristic of computer

Speed:

computer can perform very complex calculations at very enormous speed. generally, the speed of computer is measured in terms of fraction of speed.
Millisceonds-One thousendth of a second(1/1000).
Microsecond-One millionth of a second (1/1000000).
Nanosecond-One billionth of a second (1/1000000000).
Picosecond-One trillionth of a second (1/1000000000000).

Storage:
A computer system can store a huge amount of information which may be
used as future refresh. Few storage devices are Hard disk, CD-ROM.
Pen derive etc. The storage capacity is measured interims of :
8bits 1 Byte
1024 Bytes 1 Killobyte
1024 Kilobytes 1 Megabyte
1024 Megabytes 1 Gigabyte
1024 Gigabytes 1 Terabyte

Accurancy:
Computer always perform its takes without makieng any mistake if the instruction is
provide correctly. So the accurancy of a computer is cent percent.

Versatility:
Computer has a wide range of application and is used indifferent fields such as education
Science & technology, astronomy, business, entertainment. medicinies etc.

Diligence:
Copmuter is capable of doing the required tasks again without affecting its speed,
accuracy and efficiency.

Non-intelligent
Copmuter is a dumb machine and it cannot do any work without instruction from the user. So a computer cannot take its own decision as we can

Definition of computer

Computer is an programmable machine. computer is an electronic machine which can accept row material data and process then give instruction. Today, however, the term is most often used to refer to the desktop computer and laptop computer the most people use. Complex computer also include the means for storing data(including the program which is also a form of data) for some necessary duration. A program, be invariable and built into the computer(and called logic circuitry as it is on microprocessor) or different different program may be provide the computer. (loaded into its storage and then start by an administration or user). When referring to a desktop model, the term "computer" technically only refers to the computer it seat - not the monitor, keyboard and mouse.

The main characteristic of a computer are:

It responds to a set of instruction provided from an input device.
It process the provided set of instruction
It gives out the meaningful result after processing the instruction.